TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
I. The Anthropological Research
- Field Work 1. - North India (1995)
- Hinduism and Buddhism observed
- Ladakh
- Himachal & Uttar Pradesh
- Itinerary and Documentation
- Field Work 2. - The TANTRA '98 Expedition (1998)
- Tantrism
- Ladakh & Zanskar
- The Katmandu valley
- Results of the Research
- Itinerary and Documentation
II. Shaivism
- The origins of Siva Worship
- The mythic Siva
- The Vedic Siva: Rudra, Agni, Indra, etc.
- The Brahmanic Siva: Siva, Trilocana, Bhutesvara, Bhairava, etc.
- The consorts of Siva: Devi, Sakti, Sati, Parvati, Uma, Durga, Kali, etc.
- The children of Siva: Skandha, Muruhan, Ganesh, Ajjapan, etc.
- The animal of Siva: Naga, Mucilinda, Ananta, Nandi, etc.
- The followers of Siva
- Shaiva
- Kashmir Shaiva (Pratyabhijna)
- Shaiva-siddhanta
- Lingayat (Vira Shaiva)
- Dasnami Sannyasi
III. The Ascetic Tradition
- Asceticism
- Shaiva sects
- Early shaiva sects: Pashupata, Kapalika, Kalamukha
- The "Yogi": Nath (Goraknathi)
- The "Eaters of the Dead": Aghori
- The "Children of Death": Kalika
- The "Stranglers": Thug
- The "Tantric": Sakta
- The "Naked": Naga
- The "Sons of Nanak": Udasin
- Shaiva practice
- Ways of Living: Yoga
- Lifestyle
- Practice - The System of Yoga
- Hatha-Yoga: satkarma, asana, mudra, pranayama, nadi, cakra, etc.
- Laya-Yoga: bhakti-yoga. shakti-yoga, mantra-yoga, yantra-yoga
- Raja-Yoga: kriya-yoga, dhyana-yoga, kundalini-yoga, samadhi-yoga
- Tantra-Yoga: sukha-yoga, cakra-puja, siddha-yoga
- An anthropological evaluation of Hindu asceticism
IV. Lingam Worship
Glossary
Bibliography
» Read the full work » The Cult of Siva
» Oriental Studies thesis » Hindu Tantra
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In my thesis I carry out an extended analyses of the Cult of Siva and the followers and practices of the sadhu sects following the shaiva lineage of tantric Hinduism. The thesis consists of four major chapters: |
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The first chapter consists of the detailed description of my two fieldworks to Northern-India and Nepal, where I had a chance of meeting with a large number of sadhus. I also give a brief introduction to Hindu-Buddhist culture in the Himalayan region and the special cross-cultural Hindu-Buddhist phenomena called Tantrism. I briefly talk about the differences of Buddhist tantra (Tibetan Buddhism) and Hindu tantra (Sadhu practice). For detailed reference on my anthropological field work please follow this link to » Fieldwork.
The second chapter deals with Shaivism – the Hindu religious philosophical doctrine concerning the god Siva. In the first part I give a brief analyses of the development of the cult of Siva and trace the tantric tradition back to pre-aryan times to the dravida people of the Indus Civilization. I argue that the tantric tradition might be older than Vedic Hinduism and constitutes the basic teachings of both the Puranic Hindu culture and folk religions especially on the side of fertility cults. I than argue that Indian ascetics, widely known as sadhus, are the living representatives and followers of the tantric tradition. I also emphasize that orthodox Hinduism based on the teachings of the Vedas and represented by the priest cast of brahmins; and non-orthodox Hinduism based on tantric practice and represented by the cast of sadhus strongly differ and have their own ways and are entirely two separate traditions... |
The second part of the second chapter deals with the mythic representations of Siva drawing a complex picture of the infinitely multiple nature of the deity. I give a short description of the mythic background of all aspects of Siva starting from the Vedic representations of Rudra, Agni, Indra, Mahadeva, Mahesvara, Isvara, Mahesa and Jalamurti to the Brahmanic representations of Siva; Trilocana, Bhutesvara, Bhairava, Ugra, Ummat, Aghora, Sambhu, Sankara, Pasupati, Gangadhara, Candrasekhara, Nilakantha, Mahayaogi, Nataraja, Natesa, Ardhinisvara and Kamesvara. I also talk about the mythic representations of the various energies (sakti) connected to Siva in forms of his female consorts, both positive – Devi (Jaganmata, Annapurna, Mata, Amman, etc.), Sakti, Kamesvari, Sati, Parvati, Haimavati – and negative – Durga (Kotravai, Elamma), Kali, Kalaratri, Bhajravi, Candi, mahesvari, Camunda and Cinnamasta. Then I give an enumeration of the forces unfolding from the siva-sakti intercourse, the children of Siva – Skandha, Kumara, Muruhan, Ganesh and Ajjappan – and the animal consorts: the cobra (Naga, Mucilinda, Dharanendra, Ananta, Sesa, Taksaka, Vasuki) and the cow (Nandi).
The third part of the second chapter describes briefly the major philosophical schools and religious movements relating to Shaivism, looking at their historical background major figures and most important philosophical doctrines. The schools discussed here are the early monistic shaivism of Ramanuja and the dualist shaivism of Madhava, the philosophies of the Kashmir Saiva (Pratyabhijna), the Saiva Siddhanta, the Lingayat
(Vira Saiva) and the Dasnami Sannyasi. |
The third chapter deals with the ascetic tradition. In the first part I give a short introduction to the development of the ascetic tradition as it can be reconstructed from the Vedas and talk about the wide spread phenomena of asceticism popular to all religious sects of India . I describe how difficult it is to distinguish the conceptual differences of early asceticism and the efforts of categorization. My argument leads to the clear distinction of the samayin or "right hand path" and the kaula or "left hand path" tradition in tantric though and practice. I argue that this tradition is the ground for the Puranic Hindu concept of Trimurti - the trinity of God: Brahma the Creator, Visnu the Preserver and Siva the Destroyer. I see the same tradition in reflected in the beliefs and practices of sadhu sects. Following Dolf Hartsuiker's line of thought I distinguish the two major trends of vaisnava and saiva line: sects following Lord Visnu and sects following Lord Siva.
In the second part I talk about the Shaiva traditions of the left hand path and try to reconstruct the picture of the early ascetics and create my own list of Shaiva sadhu sects giving an enumeration and short description of the major aspects and doctrines of various sects. I start with the early sadhu sects - the Pashupata, Kapalika and Kalamukha sects in detail - and try to distinguish them from other contemporary ascetic sects like the bhikshu (Buddhist), jaina and ajivika sects. Then I describe the Natha (Goraknath), the Aghori, the Kalika, the Thug, the Shakta, the Naga and the Udasin sadhu sects. |
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The third part of the third chapter deals with the lifestyle and practices of the sadhu sects. I write about the general daily routine of leading an ascetic way of life and the ideology that lies behind the acts of sadhana. I then give my own interpretation of Yoga, seeing it as a complex system of exercises aiming at the final act of liberation. I distinguish four major disciplines of yoga: Hatha-, Laya-, Raja- and Tantra-yoga and make an enumeration of various exercises and rituals practiced by the different sects and place them in the system, claiming that each particular exercise belongs to a special kind of yoga which has its own way of achievement... My original intention was to write about all the exercises practiced by most sadhu sects, but as is a lifetime's work, I had to narrow the topic down to two types of yoga - hatha-yoga and tantra-yoga - mainly practiced by most shaiva sects.
In considering the hatha-yoga exercises in addition to the traditional philosophical explanations, I write about how to cleanse the body (satkarma); about different postures and ways of concentrating (asana & mudra); about withdrawing the senses (pratyahara); and activating the subtle energy systems (pranayama & nadicakra). In connection with the tantra-yoga exercises in addition to the traditional philosophical explanations, I write about mastering pleasure (sukha bhoga); mastering ecstasy (cakra-puja & panca-makara); and mastering magical powers (siddhi). I take some time on writing about the traditional usage of psychedelic drugs in the sadhu tradition and on the nature of sexual intercourse as a religious practice. |
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To end the third chapter, I give an anthropological evaluation of the ascetic tradition. I argue that sadhus are indeed the representatives of universal principles and are not only acting like living gods, but are also treated as such by their own cultural environment. I also analyze the phenomenon in respect to various anthropological views like the totemism of Durkheim or Marett – where I see sadhus as living totems – or the fetishism of Brosses – where I see sadhus as living idols of cultic worship – or the symbolism of Eliade – where I see sadhus as living hierophanies (emanations of sacredness). Altogether I can only treat the sadhu phenomenon as the original human effort of becoming one with God and participating in and acting on its power.
The fourth chapter is a short one briefly describing the various aspects of lingam worship in India. I describe the different forms of lingam worship and the major centers in India pointing out the relationship to kundalini-yoga and sadhu mortifications as well as the bhaktanta worship of the lingam. I talk about how lingam worship is a part of the cult of Siva – how fertility rites and phallic and vaginal worship relates to the cosmic dance of Siva-Sakti energies recreating the universe in their passionate creative intercourse.
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My first journey took me through Kashmir, Ladakh (Western Tibet), and North India in 1995.
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